Amid ongoing questions regarding the United States’ long-term commitment to NATO, a growing number of Americans are seeking second passports from NATO member states or allied European countries to secure alternative residency and global mobility. Acquiring a second passport does not inherently subject an individual to additional taxes unless they reside in that specific country for a substantial amount of time.
Direct Investment and Donation Programs
Turkey
Turkey offers a Citizenship by Investment (CBI) program that grants lifelong citizenship in exchange for a $400,000 real estate purchase.
- Timeline and Requirements: The property must be held for three years, after which it can be resold while the passport is retained for life.
- Considerations: Turkey is a NATO member but not part of the European Union (EU). Its passport provides strong access to the Global South but requires a visa for entry into countries like the United States. Purchasing secondhand properties rather than new developer builds may improve the likelihood of reselling at a profit, as new builds often carry high developer commissions.
Portugal
Portugal’s Golden Visa program provides a pathway to an EU and NATO country passport.
- Requirements: Real estate purchases are no longer eligible for this program. Applicants must make an alternative investment, such as into an approved investment fund.
- Timeline: The investment must be maintained for five years before applying for citizenship.
- Language Prerequisite: Citizenship requires demonstrating language proficiency. However, completing certified online language school courses can bypass the official language exam.
Malta
Malta operates the Maltese Exceptional Investor Naturalization (MEIN) program, which combines the processing speed of standard CBI programs with EU benefits.
- Cost: Approximately $1 million all-in for a family. This is a non-refundable donation, unlike the returnable investments in Turkey or Portugal.
- Timeline: Citizenship is granted in under 1.5 years.
- Physical Presence: The program requires spending a few weeks living on the island.
- NATO Nuance: Malta itself is not a NATO member. However, Maltese citizenship grants the right to live anywhere within the EU and select non-EU states like Norway, allowing individuals to establish residency in active NATO nations.
Residency and Entrepreneurship Pathways
Ireland
Ireland is an English-speaking EU member state but is not a member of NATO. However, an Irish passport allows the holder to live across the EU and the United Kingdom (a core NATO member).
- Requirements: Individuals can move to Ireland by starting a small business and hiring a few employees.
- Timeline: Citizenship can be applied for after residing in Ireland for the majority of the year over a five-year period. Unique to Ireland, individuals must maintain ongoing connections to the country after citizenship is granted.
- Taxes: Ireland offers a non-domiciled (non-dom) tax program, which can significantly reduce or eliminate local taxes for certain expats.
Spain (For Latin American Citizens)
Spain offers an accelerated naturalization pathway specifically for citizens of Latin American countries (such as Colombia and other nations in Central or South America).
- Timeline: Eligible individuals can apply for Spanish citizenship after two years of legal residence.
- Taxes: Spain provides a multi-year tax exemption scheme that maintains low tax rates during the initial two-year residency period.
Citizenship by Descent (CBD)
For individuals with European ancestry, Citizenship by Descent is often the most cost-effective route to an EU or NATO passport, bypassing investment requirements entirely.
- Italy: Italy allows individuals to claim citizenship through ancestral lines stretching back to great-grandparents or earlier. Non-residents face no Italian tax burden, while those who move to Italy can utilize a multi-year tax exemption featuring a fixed lump-sum tax framework.
- Greece: Greece offers a flexible CBD program and features a favorable lump-sum tax scheme for foreign income earners who relocate.
- Slovakia: Recent legal adjustments allow individuals to claim citizenship back through multiple generations.
- Poland: Poland features flexible descent rules alongside competitive tax incentives for incoming foreigners.
- Hungary & Croatia: Both countries maintain ancestry pathways, though Hungary’s process is notably more stringent.
Note on Northern Europe: Countries like Norway have strict limitations, generally restricting citizenship by descent only to individuals whose parents are citizens.
Regional Comparisons and Risks
Restricted or Difficult Regions
- The United Kingdom: The UK abolished its Investor Visa program. There is no passive investment path to residency. Obtaining citizenship requires living in the UK for nine months per year over approximately six years.
- Northern Europe & Baltics: Iceland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Finland lack golden visa programs and maintain strict naturalization and descent laws. Estonia and Lithuania offer paths for entrepreneurs but require substantial time on the ground and long waiting periods. Latvia offers an investment residence program, but it requires living in the country for nine months a year for a decade before citizenship is possible.
- Western Balkans: Montenegro’s citizenship by investment program has officially ended, and standard naturalization is rare. North Macedonia advertised a citizenship program, but actual approvals remain unverified [unclear].
The Balkan Wild Card: Albania
Albania is an active NATO member located in the Western Balkans. It is not an EU member, but it represents an up-and-coming real estate market with affordable coastal property (e.g., the Sarandë region). While the government previously paused plans for an official citizenship-by-investment program due to EU pressure, legal avenues for residency and eventual naturalization exist for those willing to reside there, though local language acquisition and physical presence remain standard requirements.
